Circumcision, surgical removal of all or part of the foreskin of the human
male or of the corresponding tissues of the female.
Circumcision of
males has been widely practiced as a
religious rite since ancient times. Muslims also
practice an initiatory rite of Judaism, circumcision, for whom it signifies spiritual purification. Although its origins are unknown, earliest evidence of the practice dates from ancient Egypt about 2300BC, where it is thought to have been used originally to mark male slaves. By the time of the Roman takeover of Egypt in 30BC, the practice had a ritual significance, and only
circumcised priests could perform certain religious offices.
Male circumcision appears widely among tribal peoples of Africa, the Malay Archipelago, New Guinea, Australia, and the pacific islands. Some form of genital surgery was ritually performed on males or females among certain South and Central Native American groups.
In tribal settings, circumcision is nearly always associated with traumatic puberty rites. Occasionally the severed part is offered as a sacrifice to spirit beings. The operation certifies the subject's readiness for marriage and adulthood and testifies to his or her ability to withstand pain. Circumcision may also distinguish cultural groups from their uncircumcised neighbors.
In Jewish religious tradition, infant male circumcision is required as part of Abraham's covenant with God. According to the Levitical law, every Jewish male infant had to be circumcised on the eighth day after birth, under penalty of ostracism from the congregation of Israel. Jews employ a mohel, a man who has the requisite surgical skill and religious knowledge to perform the rite. After a ritual prayer, the mohel circumcises the infant and then names and blesses the child.
Among the Arabs, circumcision existed before the time of Muhammad (before AD570). Although the Koran does not mention it, Islamic custom demands that Muslim males be circumcised before marriage; the rite is generally performed in infancy. Some Islamic peoples practice female circumcision (clitoridectomy). This is done for aesthetic reasons and to reduce the female's sexual desires.
In some Mediterranean and Islamic countries, clitoridectomy can be an aspect of family honor. In cases where female chastity is a matter of respectability, public evidence of a bride's lost virginity is an important sequel to marriage: a woman who is unable to demonstrate that she has lost her virginity to her new husband may be divorced or, in extreme instances, put to death by her own family.
Circumcision is absent from the Hindu-Buddhist and Confucian traditions, and in general the Christian church has no specific doctrine about it. At present the Abyssinian church alone among Christian bodies recognizes circumcision as a religious rite. Hinduism; Buddhism; Confucianism.
Since the 19th century, many English-speaking peoples have adopted the custom of circumcision, primarily for medical reasons. In modern medical practice, circumcision of males is a minor operation usually performed in infancy for hygienic purposes. It is currently estimated that 85 percent of North American males are circumcised. The incidence among non-Jewish populations of continental Europe, Scandinavia, and South America is low.
The medical case for circumcision is unproved and controversial. Physicians in the 19th century advised the operation for many ailments, including hysteria, sexually transmitted disease, hypersexuality, and even hiccup. Modern proponents suggest that disease result from the buildup of smegma, a substance secreted under the foreskin. Also cited is evidence that circumcised populations (especially Jews) display low rates of penile and cervical cancer. Critics reject the validity of these claims, arguing that such disorders are more likely caused by poor hygiene and by contact with multiple sex partners.
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